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Communication theory: an overview
No single theory explains all communication. Each one answers a different question, so the useful skill is knowing which to reach for.
What a communication model is
A model is a simplified picture that highlights some features and ignores others. A model of signals and noise is good for engineering a phone line; a model of inference is better for understanding why a hint was misunderstood.
Key models at a glance
| Theory | Core idea | Useful for |
|---|---|---|
| Lasswell (1948) | Who says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect? | Structuring a question about any message |
| Shannon & Weaver (1949) | Communication as transmission of a signal through a channel with noise | Signals, hearing, noise, error (see encode–decode) |
| Jakobson (1960) | Six factors in any message, each linked to a function (referential, emotive, conative, poetic, phatic, metalingual) | Analysing what a message is doing, beyond giving information |
| Watzlawick et al. (1967) | Every message has a content and a relationship aspect; one cannot not communicate | Family, team and clinical interaction |
| Grice (1975) | Speakers follow a cooperative principle (be informative, truthful, relevant and clear); breaking a maxim signals extra meaning | Implied meaning, and pragmatic difficulties |
| Sperber & Wilson (1995) | Listeners seek the most relevant interpretation; communication is inferential | Understanding how hints and context work (see problems with the code model) |
| Giles et al. (1991) | People adjust their speech to be closer to, or further from, others | Rapport, accent, adapting to the listener |
| Clark (1996) | Language is joint action; partners build common ground together | Conversation partner training, repair |
Three families of models
- Transmission models treat communication as sending information. They are best for signals, noise and technology.
- Inferential models treat communication as the speaker offering evidence of what they mean and the listener working it out.
- Interactional models treat communication as shared activity between partners, shaped moment by moment (see adjacency pairs).
Choosing a model in practice
| Your question | A good starting point |
|---|---|
| Is the signal getting through? | Transmission model |
| Why was the hint missed? | Grice or relevance theory |
| How do two people repair a misunderstanding? | Joint action and conversation analysis |
| Why does the same person sound different with different listeners? | Accommodation theory |
| How predictable is this language? | Information theory |
Key idea. Models are tools, not rival truths. Pick the one that fits the question you are asking.
Sources and further reading
- Lasswell, H. D. (1948). The structure and function of communication in society. In L. Bryson (Ed.), The Communication of Ideas. Harper.
- Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois Press.
- Jakobson, R. (1960). Closing statement: Linguistics and poetics. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Style in Language. MIT Press.
- Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J. H., & Jackson, D. D. (1967). Pragmatics of Human Communication. Norton.
- Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole & J. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and Semantics 3. Academic Press.
- Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1995). Relevance: Communication and Cognition (2nd ed.). Blackwell.
- Giles, H., Coupland, N., & Coupland, J. (1991). Contexts of Accommodation. Cambridge University Press.
- Clark, H. H. (1996). Using Language. Cambridge University Press.